medicinal values of snake venom

     Charles Lucien Bonaparte, younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, was the first to establish the proteinaceous nature of snake venom in 1843.

Proteins constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and they are responsible for almost all of its biological effects. Among hundreds, even thousands of proteins found in venom, there are toxins, neurotoxins in particular, as well as nontoxic proteins (which also have pharmacological properties), and many enzymes, especially hydrolytic ones.[2] Enzymes (molecular weight 13-150 KDa) make-up 80-90% of viperid and 25-70% of elapid venoms: digestive hydrolases, L-amino acid oxidase, phospholipases, thrombin-like pro-coagulant, and kallikrein-like serine proteases and metalloproteinases (hemorrhagins), which damage vascular endothelium. Polypeptide toxins (molecular weight 5-10 KDa) include cytotoxins, cardiotoxins, and postsynaptic neurotoxins (such as α-bungarotoxin and α-Cobratoxin), which bind to acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions. Compounds with low molecular weight (up to 1.5 KDa) include metals, peptides, lipids, nucleosides, carbohydrates, amines, and oligopeptides, which inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and potentiate bradykinin (BPP). Inter- and intra-species variation in venom chemical composition is geographical and ontogenic.[3] Phosphodiesterases interfere with the prey's cardiac system, mainly to lower the blood pressure. Phospholipase A2 causes hemolysis by lysing the phospholipid cell membranes of red blood cells.[6] Amino acid oxidases and proteases are used for digestion. Amino acid oxidase also triggers some other enzymes and is responsible for the yellow colour of the venom of some species. Hyaluronidase increases tissue permeability to accelerate absorption of other enzymes into tissues. Some snake venoms carry fasciculins, like the mambas (Dendroaspis), which inhibit cholinesterase to make the prey lose muscle control.[7]

MAIN ENZYMES OF SNAKE VENOM

TYPE	NAME	ORIGIN
Oxydoreductases	dehydrogenase lactate	Elapidae
	L-amino-acid oxidase	All species
	Catalase	All species
Transferases	Alanine amino transferase
Hydrolases	Phospholipase A2	All species
	Lysophospholipase	Elapidae, Viperidae
	Acetylcholinesterase	Elapidae
	Alkaline phosphatase	Bothrops atrox
	Acid phosphatase	Deinagkistrodon acutus
	5'-Nucleotidase	All species
	Phosphodiesterase	All species
	Deoxyribonuclease	All species
	Ribonuclease 1	All species
	Adenosine triphosphatase	All species
	Amylase	All species
	Hyaluronidase	All species
	NAD-Nucleotidase	All species
	Kininogenase	Viperidae
	Factor-X activator	Viperidae, Crotalinae
	Heparinase	Crotalinae
	α-Fibrinogenase	Viperidae, Crotalinae
	β-Fibrinogenase	Viperidae, Crotalinae
	α-β-Fibrinogenase	Bitis gabonica
	Fibrinolytic enzyme	Crotalinae
	Prothrombin activator	Crotalinae
	Collagenase	Viperidae
	Elastase	Viperidae
Lyases	Glucosamine ammonium lyase

TOXINS

NUEROTOXINS

 A) An exchange of ions (charged atoms) across the nerve cell membrane sends a depolarising current towards the end of the nerve cell (cell terminus).

B) When the depolarising current arrives at the nerve cell terminus, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), which is held in vesicles, is released into the space between the two nerves (synapse). It moves across the synapse to the postsynaptic receptors.

C) If ACh remains at the receptor, the nerve stays stimulated, causing incontrollable muscle contractions. This condition is called tetany. An enzyme called acetylcholinesterase destroys the ACh so tetany does not occur.

Fasciculins:

These toxins attack cholinergic neurons (those that use ACh as a transmitter) by destroying acetylcholinesterase (AChE). ACh therefore cannot be broken down and stays in the receptor. This causes tetany, which can lead to death. The toxins have been called fasciculins since after injection into mice, they cause severe, generalized and long-lasting (5-7 h) fasciculations.

Snake example: found mostly in venom of Mambas and some rattlesnakes

Dendrotoxins:

Dendrotoxins inhibit neurotransmissions by blocking the exchange of positive and negative ions across the neuronal membrane lead to no nerve impulse, thereby paralysing the nerves.

Snake example: Mambas

α-neurotoxins:

This is a large group of toxins, with over 100 postsynaptic neurotoxins having been identified and sequenced.[8] α-neurotoxins also attack cholinergic neurons. They mimic the shape of the acetylcholine molecule and therefore fit into the receptors → they block the ACh flow → feeling of numbness and paralysis.

Snake examples:

- King Cobra (known as hannahtoxin containing α-neurotoxins)[9]

- Sea snake (known as erabutoxin)

- Many-banded krait (known as α-Bungarotoxin)

- Cobras (known as cobratoxin),

Phospholipases:

Phospholipase is an enzyme that transforms the phospholipid molecule into a lysophospholipid (soap) ==> the new molecule attracts and binds fat and ruptures cell membranes.

Snake example: Japanese Habu

Cardiotoxins:

Cardiotoxins are components that are specifically toxic to the heart. They bind to particular sites on the surface of muscle cells and cause depolarisation ==> the toxin prevents muscle contraction. These toxins may cause the heart to beat irregularly or stop beating, causing death.

Snake example: King Cobra, Mambas, and some members of Naja genus

Hemotoxins:

The toxin causes hemolysis, or destruction of red blood cells (erythrocytes).

Snake example: most Vipers and the many members of Naja genus.

EVOLUTION

    Snake venom consists of many different toxin proteins: these can either have enzymatic activity, which typically assists in digestion, or can be shorter peptides that are used to immobilize prey. [10] Toxin proteins make up many multigene families, and arose from gene recruitment of proteins that do not code for toxins, followed by extensive evolutionary modification. [11][12][13] Toxin evolution follows the birth-and-death model of gene families, where duplication followed by functional diversification results in the creation of structurally related proteins that have slightly different functions. It is thought that venom as a way to immobilize prey was beneficial in allowing the uncoupling of feeding system and locomotion, which are coupled in the Haenophidians, which then enabled snakes with venom systems to colonize open areas.[14] Venom continue to evolve as specific toxins are modified to target a specific prey, and it is found that toxins vary according to diet in some species.[15][16]

The presence of enzymes in snake venom was once believed to be an adaptation to assist digestion. However, studies of the western diamondback rattlesnake, a snake with highly proteolytic venom, show that venom has no impact on the time required for food to pass through the gut.[17]

IMMUNITY

Among snakes

The question whether individual snakes are immune to their own venom is not yet definitely settled, though there is a known example of a cobra which self-envenomated, resulting in a large abscess requiring surgical intervention but showing none of the other effects that would have proven rapidly lethal in prey species or humans.[19] Furthermore, certain harmless species, such as the North American Lampropeltis getula and the Brazilian Rhacidelus brazili, are proof against the venom of the crotalines which frequent the same districts, and which they are able to overpower and feed upon. The Tropical Rat Snake, Spilotes variabilis, is the enemy of the Fer-de-lance in St. Lucia, and it is said[by whom?] that in their encounters the Tropical Rat Snake is invariably the victor. Repeated experiments have shown the European Common Snake, Tropidonotus natrix, not to be affected by the bite of Vipera berus and Vipera aspis, this being due to the presence, in the blood of the harmless snake, of toxic principles secreted by the parotid and labial glands, and analogous to those of the venom of these vipers. Several North American species of Rat snakes as well as King snakes have proven to be immune or highly resistant to the venom of rattlesnake species.

Among other animals

The Hedgehog, the Mongoose, the Honey Badger, the Secretary Bird and a few other birds that feed on snakes are known to be immune to a dose of snake venom. Whether the pig may be considered so is still uncertain, although it is well known that, owing to its subcutaneous layer of fat, it is often bitten without ill effect. The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) has recently been added to the list of animals refractory to viper venom. Some populations of California Ground Squirrel are at least partially immune to Rattlesnake venom as adults.

Among humans

The acquisition of human immunity against snake venom is one of the oldest forms of vaccinology known to date (about AD 60, Psylli Tribe). Research into development of vaccines that will lead to immunity is ongoing. Bill Haast, owner and director of the Miami Serpentarium injected himself with snake venom during most of his adult life, in an effort to build up an immunity to a broad array of venomous snakes. It is a practice known as mithridatism. Haast lived to age 100, and survived a reported 172 snake bites. He donated his blood to be used in treating snake-bite victims when a suitable anti-venom was not available. More than twenty of those individuals recovered.[20][21][22]

MEDICINAL PROPERTY

1)   CANCER THERAPY

          Snake venoms are supposed to be the most complex of animal secretions containing a vast number of compounds with different pharmacological and biochemical activities. Literature shows that cobra venom components especially DNAase and RNAase and other enzymes inhibit cancer growth. A PROTEIN found in copperhead snake venom dramatically retards the growth of breast tumours. In studies with mice implanted with human breast cancer cells, a 60 to 70 per cent reduction in the growth rate of the breast tumours and a 90 per cent reduction of tumours that spread to the lungs was found in rodents treated with the protein. However, it will take at least 18 months before the venom protein will be ready to test on patients. The copperhead protein acts by inhibiting the development of new blood vessels to nourish the tumours and by putting tumour cells into a "suspended state of animation". Prof Markland said the dual action helped prevent the spread of cancer, a process called metastasis.

When first diagnosed with breast cancer, many women already have metastatic disease, which means that the cancer has spread to another site such as the lymph nodes, brain or bone.

Called contortrostatin, CN, the protein is purified from the venom of the southern copperhead and is one of a cocktail used by the snake to immobilise prey, keeping blood fluid so that other damaging proteins can spread through the body.  Snake venoms in general are loaded with proteins, many of which lead to tissue destruction at the site of the bite. The mice trials had not revealed any side-effects other than local bleeding. CN belongs to a class of proteins known as disintegrins, so named because they disrupt the function of certain other proteins, called integrins, on the surface of cells that enable them to stick together.

CN should be administered periodically over time in the hope of shrinking the tumour to a size is effective in retarding the spread of tumour cells because it inhibits their adhesion to and invasion of normal cells. CN would need to be administered per where treatment could be scaled back or stopped.

2)   IN STROKE

      A stroke happens when blood flow to the brain is interrupted. Lack of oxygen and food to the brain can lead to serious central nervous system impairments and even death. Snake venom has been found to have properties that can be useful in the treatment of strokes. A substance called ANCROD, derived from snake venom, allows stroke victims to recover their mental and physical abilities. Researchers found that more than 40% of patients who received ANCROD recovered all of their mental faculties versus more than 30% for placebo patients. The researchers hope that snake venom may provide an alternative to Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) which currently is the only FDA-approved treatment for acute stokes.

ANCROD is a substance formulated from the venom of the Malayan pit viper. In previous observations, scientists had noted that the blood of people bitten by the snake failed to clot. Since stokes are caused by blood clots, researchers were hopeful that this anticoagulant might have applications in stoke victims.

The most striking difference between ANCROD and TPA is the method of administration. TPA is normally injected in a single dose, preferably in the first three hours after the onset of a stroke. ANCROD, on the other hand, is administered by IV over a 3 to 5 day period.

While TPA dissolves clots that cause strokes, ANCROD works by reducing the level of fibrinogen in the blood. Since fibrinogen is the clotting factor in the body, lower levels allow the blood to flow more freely through the blood vessels, thereby reducing the chances for clotting.

Scientists found that those patients whose fibrinogen was reduced and maintained at a target level had the most successful treatment after a stroke. The amount necessary to produce this result was determined by both the body weight of the patient and the relative amount of fibrinogen in the patient's blood. During the treatment period, the additional amount of ANCROD needed was based on the relative level of fibrinogen present in the blood at that time.

The target level was 40-70 milligrams of fibrinogen per deciliter of blood. Doctors found that if this level was maintained in the body, the patients regained their mental faculties after the stroke, had less chance of bleeding, and had less chance of another stroke during the therapy period.

Researchers hope to provide an alternative to the use of TPA. They speculate that having a wider range of treatments will benefit patients. Depending on the kind of stoke and the particular patient, one of the two could be more effective than the other.

Patients participated in a follow-up three months after the stroke. Various mental and physical tests were performed to gauge whether these patients had returned to normal and regained their mental faculties. Researchers noted that patients who received ANCROD were more likely to have a higher risk of bleeding in the brain compared to TPA patients.

3)   BRAIN DISORDERS

   The paralyzing effects of the venom of African mamba snakes can be so powerful that bites from these snakes have been known to topple giraffes and lions, and can kill a person within 20 minutes. But that hasn’t stopped biochemist Dr. Krishna Baksi of the Universidad Central Del Caribe in Puerto Rico from working with the venom of these snakes. With funding from the NIH National Institute of General Medical Sciences, Dr. Baksi is trying to figure out what enables proteins in the mamba venom from latching on so tightly and specifically to certain structures called receptors, which jut out of the surface of brain and nerve cells. The brain uses certain kinds of these receptors to receive the chemical signals that let it learn, form memories, perceive pain, and do many other functions. Nerve cells use the same receptor type to pass on signals to neighboring muscles that trigger them to contract or stay at rest, and affect breathing and heart beat rates. There are five known subtypes of these receptors, each of which are thought to play a role in various diseases, including asthma, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and certain pain disorders. So researchers are eager to find drugs that can alter the actions of these receptors.

But their efforts have been hampered by an inability to find compounds that act specifically on only one type of receptor--you don’t want a drug that acts on the receptor involved with Alzheimer’s disease if you have Parkinson’s disease, for example. And that’s where the mamba snake comes in. Its venom has proteins that are highly specific for which receptors they will latch on to. By studying the structure of these proteins, Dr. Baksi hopes to have results that drug makers can use to design new and more selective drugs for a wide range of neurological disorders.

4)   AIDS

  

Snake venom contains Phospholipase A2 (PLA2)[11,16], which protect human primary blood leukocytes from the replication of various macrophage and T cell-tropic human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) strains. PLA2 which is found in the venom of many snakes has been shown to block viral entry into cells before virion uncoating through prevention of intracellular release of viral capsid protein [16]. This is mainly due to the specific interaction of PLA2 to host cells and not due to catalytic activity.

       Immunokine - an oxidized derivative of alpha - cobra toxin (Naja naja siamensis), has been shown to inhibit the infection of lymphocytes by HIV and Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) through chemokine receptors (CCR 5 and CXCR 4).

   L- amino acid oxidase (LAO), present in the venom of Trimeresurus stejnegeri[18], C. Atrox, P. australis[19]; inhibits infection and replication of HIV virus through P24 antigen in a dose dependant manner[18]. P24 antigen is a core protein of HIV and its level associates with viral load[20]. Besides the binding of protein to cell membrane, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) produced as a free radical could inhibit the infection/replication of HIV, thereby further enhancing the anti viral activity. In contrast, catalase - a scavenger of H2O2, reduces the anti- viral activity [18].

    Protein fragment isolated from Oxyuranus scutellatus snake venom is a potent inhibitor of p24 antigen and blocks viral replication of resistant strains [21].

 Snake venom contains metalloprotease inhibitors[16,22] which could prevent the production of new viruses through inhibition of protease enzymes. HIV infects a CD4 cell of a person's body and then it copies its own genetic code into the cell's DNA. Then, CD4 cell is "programmed" to make new HIV genetic material and proteins. These proteins are degraded by HIV protease enzyme and again these proteins are used to make functional new HIV particles. Protease inhibitors are used to block the protease enzyme and prevent the cell from producing new viruses.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a membrane protein, is an energy-dependent efflux transporter driven by ATP hydrolysis[23]. P-gp transports a wide range of substances with diverse chemical structures. In general, P-gp substrates appear to be lipophilic and amphiphatic, and are recognized to play an important role in processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of many clinically important drugs in humans [23]. Because of its importance in pharmacokinetics, inhibition or induction of P-gp by various components of snake venom can lead to significant drug-drug interactions, thereby changing the systemic or target tissue exposure of the protease inhibitors. At the same time one has to remember genetic polymorphism of P-gp,[23] which has also been recorded recently, because it may affect drug disposition and produce variable drug effects.

5)   Analgesic effect

 Scientists have used the venom of Africa's lethal black mamba to produce an effective pain relief without toxic side effects. peptides isolated from black mamba venom may be a safer pain killer than morphine.

In mice at least, the peptides bypass the receptors in the brain that are targeted by morphine and other opioid compounds which sometimes cause side-effects like breathing difficulties or nausea.

Nor do the peptides pose the same risk of addiction or drug abuse. natural peptides, mambalgins, from the venom of the snake Black Mamba that are able to significantly reduce pain in mice without toxic effect, It is remarkable that this was made possible from the deadly venom of one of the most venomous snakes," she says.

"(It) is surprising that mambalgins, which represent less than 0.5 per cent of the total venom protein content, has analgesic (pain-relief) properties without neurotoxicity in mice, whereas the total venom of black mamba is lethal and among the most neurotoxic ones."

Morphine is often regarded as the best drug to relieve severe pain and suffering, but it has several side effects and can be habit-forming.

The black mamba's venom is among the fastest acting of any snake species, and a bite will be fatal if not treated with antivenom - the poison attacking the central nervous system and causing respiratory paralysis.

Mice are among the agile adder's favourite prey in the wild in eastern and southern Africa.

6)   ANTI AGING

  A topical treatment incorporating imitation snake venom is being marketed as an alternative to Botox. The results of this product, called Wrinkle Defence, are typical of topical treatments in their cumulative effect. While Botox injections are immediately active on the facial muscles, the “freezing” results of this topical begin to appear after about two weeks. It is claimed that Wrinkle Defence visibly reduces wrinkles by 52%.

ENDANGERED BIRD SPECIES OF KERALA

1) 1)      HOUSE SPARROW ( ANGADI KURUVI, IRAKILI, ARIKILI, ANNAKILI, VEETU KURUVI)




   It was known to be the most common bird in almost all places. Very common in Europe and all parts of Asia. By following humans it reached America, suburbs of Africa, Australia and other parts of the world. It has been observed that the house sparrow conquers the nests of other birds. The size of the bird is approximately 14 to 16 cm. The lower parts of the neck of male birds are white and black coloured breast. Females are faded ash colour. Common sparrows always fly in groups making chirping sounds. Normally the birds won’t fly at a height above 150 metres. Breeding is 6 to 7 times a year. The nest is build by male and female together. Female lays 3 or 4 eggs at a time. The eggs hatches within 14 days.

SPECIES

 They are classified according to their size and colour of the cheeks. The species seen in western countries are larger in size than those seen in northern side.

FEED

  Since the birds are seen in thickly populated area, their feed includes seeds and cereals. Apart from that they also feed on flowers and butterflies. The hatchlings  feed on larvae of insects.

2)   WHITE BROWED FANTAIL ( AATAKARAN PAKSHI)

The scientific name is Rhipidura aureola  a small passerine bird. It has large circular fan like tail and a slight blackish body. It use to open and close its tail and dance by making a typical noise. It is because of this tail the brd is known as fan tail.

HABITAT

  It is mostly seen in areas containing shrubs and bushes also seen in areas of human population. Main feed is cockroaches. It use to visit cow sheds and verandas of houses in search of prey. It produces a click voice while catching cockroaches. Its nesting begins in summer and at the beginning of rainy season. The nests are seen mainly on teak trees. The nests are built on small branches passing close to the ground. The nest resembles a cup; it is made up of strings of coconut and areca nut trees joined with the help of cobwebs. Its breeding time starts in summer and at the beginning of rainy season. The eggs are  short oval shaped pink coloured ones. The hatchlings look like small meat pieces. The crows and other birds feed on the hatchlings so these birds spent most of the time near to the nest guarding their babies.

3)      TAILOR BIRD ( ADAKKA KURUVI, THUNNARAN, THUNNAKKARAN KURUVI, PANAKURUVI)

Tailorbirds are small birds belonging to the genus Orthotomus often placed in the Old World warbler family Sylviidae. However, recent research suggests they more likely belong in the Cisticolidae and they are treated as such in Del Hoyo et al. (2006). One species, the Mountain Tailorbird (and therefore also its sister species Rufous-headed Tailorbird), is actually closer to an old world warbler genus Cettia.[1]

They occur in the Old World tropics, principally in Asia.

These warblers are usually brightly coloured, with green or grey upperparts and yellow white or grey underparts. They often have chestnut on the head.

Tailorbirds have short rounded wings, short tails, strong legs and long curved bills. The tail is typically held upright, like a wren. They are typically found in open woodland, scrub and gardens.

Tailorbirds get their name from the way their nest is constructed. The edges of a large leaf are pierced and sewn together with plant fibre or spider's web to make a cradle in which the actual grass nest is built. The Common Tailorbird is a brightly coloured bird, with bright green upperparts and whitish underparts. They range in size from 10 to 14 centimetres (3.9 to 5.5 in) and weigh 6 to 10 grams (0.21 to 0.35 oz). They have short rounded wings, a long tail, strong legs and a sharp bill with curved tip to the upper mandible. They are wren-like with a long upright tail that is often moved around. The crown is rufous and the upperparts are predominantly olive green. The underside is creamy white. The sexes are identical, except that the male has long central tail feathers in the breeding season, although the reliability of sexing data accompanying museum specimens used in determining this sexual dimorphism has been questioned. Young birds are duller.When calling, the dark patches on the sides of the neck become visible. These are due to the dark pigmented and bare skin that are present in both sexes and sometimes give the appearance of a dark gorget. Tailorbirds are found in singly or in pairs, usually low in the undergrowth or trees sometimes hopping on the ground. They forage for insects and have been known to feed on a range of beetles and bugs. They are attracted to insects at flowers and are known to favour the inflorescenses of mango. They also visit flowers such as those of Bombax, Salmalia for nectar and are sometimes covered in pollen, giving them a golden-headed appearance.

The birds roost alone during the non-breeding season but may roost side-by-side during the breeding season, sometimes with the newly fledged juvenile sandwiched between the adults. The roost sites chosen are thin twigs on trees with cover above them and were often close to human habitation and lights

BREEDING

The breeding season is March to December peaking from June to August in India, coinciding with the wet season. In Sri Lanka the main breeding periods are March to May and August to September, although they can breed throughout the year.

Although the name is derived from their nest construction habit, the nest is not unique and is also found in many Prinia warblers. The nest is a deep cup, lined with soft materials and placed in thick foliage and the leaves holding the nest have the upper surfaces outwards making it difficult to spot. The punctures made on the edge of the leaves are minute and do not cause browning of the leaves, further aiding camouflage. The nest lining of a nest in Sri Lanka that was studied by Casey Wood was found to be lined with lint from Euphorbia, Ceiba pentandra and Bombax malabaricum species. Jerdon wrote that the bird made knots, however no knots are used. Wood classified the processes used by the tailorbird in nest as sewing, rivetting, lacing and matting. In some cases the nest is made from a single large leaf, the margins of which are rivetted together. Sometimes the fibres from one rivet are extended into an adjoining puncture and appearing more like sewing. The stitch is made by piercing two leaves and drawing fibre through them. The fibres fluff out on the outside and in effect they are more like rivets. There are many variations in the nest and some may altogether lack the cradle of leaves. One observer noted that the birds did not utilize cotton that was made available while another observer, Edward Hamilton Aitken, was able to induce them to use artificially supplied cotton. The usual clutch is three eggs.

The incubation period is about 12 days. Both male and female feed the young. Mortality of eggs and chicks is high due to predation by rodents, cats, crow-pheasants, lizards and other predators. The young birds fledge in about 14 days. The female alone incubates according to some sources, while others suggest that both sexes incubate; however, both parents take part in feeding and sanitation. The males are said to feed the incubating female. An unusual case of a pair of tailorbirds adopting chicks in an artificially translocated nest belonging to a different pair has been recorded. Nests are sometimes parasitized by the Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus).

4)     BLACK HOODED ORIOLE( MANJAKILI)

The Black-hooded Oriole (Oriolus xanthornus) is a member of the oriole family of passerine birds and is a resident breeder in tropical southern Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia.

It is a bird of open woodland and cultivation. The nest is built in a tree, and contains two eggs. The food is insects and fruit, especially figs, found in the tree canopies where the orioles spend much of their time.

The male is striking, with the typical oriole black and yellow coloration. The plumage is predominantly yellow, with a solid black hood, and black also in the wings and tail centre.

The female Black-hooded Oriole is a drabber bird with greenish underparts, but still has the black hood. Young birds are like the female, but have dark streaking on the underparts, and their hood is not solidly black, especially on the throat.

The black head of this species is an obvious distinction from Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus, which is a summer visitor to northern India. Orioles can be shy, and even the male may be difficult to see in the dappled yellow and green leaves of the canopy.

The Black-hooded Oriole's flight is somewhat like a thrush, strong and direct with some shallow dips over longer distances.

5)     COMMONWOODSHRIKE( ASURATHAAN)

The Common Woodshrike (Tephrodornis pondicerianus) is a species of bird found in Asia. It has been placed in the cuckoshrike (Campephagidae) and helmetshrike (Prionopidae) families in the past and is now considered a member of the family Tephrodornithidae. It is small and ashy brown with a dark cheek patch and a broad white brow. It is found across Asia mainly in the thin forest and scrub habitats. The form found in Sri Lanka which was treated as a subspecies is now usually considered a separate species, the Sri Lanka Woodshrike. The Common Woodshrike is dully ashy brown and like other woodshrikes has a large head with a strong hooked beak. They have a broad creamy brow above a dark cheek patch and white outer tail feathers contrasting with their dark tail. The Sri Lankan species is similar darker on the underside, with the dark cheek bordered below by a buffy sub-moustachial stripe and a white rump. Usually found in pairs, they have a loud whistling song made of several notes. The usual call is a plaintive weet-weet followed by a series of quick whi-whi-whi-whee?. They feed on insects and berries in mainly in vegetation but sometimes descending to the ground. They have a habit of adjusting their wings, raising them over the tail shortly after alighting on a perch. They nest in summer before the rainy season, building a cup nest on a bare fork. The nest is made of fibres and bark held by cobwebs and covered with bits of bark and lichen. It is lined with silky plant fibres. Three eggs are the usual clutch. Both parents incubate. Only the female may feed the young with insects and berries. Two broods may be raised in some years.

6)  GREATER COUCAL(CHEMPOTH)

1)  The Greater Coucal or Crow Pheasant (Centropus sinensis) is a large non-parasitic member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes. A widespread resident in Asia, from India, east to south China and Indonesia, it is divided into several subspecies, some being treated as full species. They are large, crow-like with a long tail and coppery brown wings and found in wide range of habitats from jungle to cultivation and urban gardens. They are weak fliers, and are often seen clambering about in vegetation or walking on the ground as they forage for insects, eggs and nestlings of other birds. They have a familiar deep resonant call which is associated with omens in many parts of its range. This is a large species of cuckoo at 48 cm. The head is black, upper mantle and underside are black glossed with purple. The back and wings are chestnut brown. There are no pale shaft streaks on the coverts. The eyes are ruby red. Juveniles are duller black with spots on the crown and there are whitish bars on the underside and tail. There are several geographic races and some of these populations are sometimes treated as full species. Earlier treatments included the Brown Coucal (C. (s.) andamanensis) under this name. Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) suggest that the race parroti may be a full species - the Southern Coucal which is fround in peninsular India (northern boundary unclear). The race intermedius of the Assam and Bangladesh region is smaller than the nominate race found in the sub-Himalayan zone. Songs of the races are said to vary considerably. Race parroti of southern India has a black head and the underparts glossed blue and has the forehead, face and throat more brownish.The sexes are similar in plumage but females are slightly larger. The Greater Coucal is a large bird which takes a wide range of insects, caterpillars and small vertebrates such as the Saw-scaled vipers. They are also known to eat bird eggs, nestlings, fruits and seeds. In Tamil Nadu they were found to feed predominantly on snails Helix vittata. They are also known to feed on the toxic fruits of Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander).In Oil palm cultivation, they have been noted as an avian pest due to their habit of eating the fleshy mesocarps of the ripe fruits.

Sunning (West Bengal, India)

They sunbathe in the mornings singly or in pairs on the top of vegetation with their wings spread out. The territory of a nesting pair has been found in southern India to be 0.9 to 7.2  They are most active in the warm hours of the morning and in the late afternoon.

The calls are a booming low coop-coop-coops repeated and with variations and some duets between individuals. When duetting the female has a lower pitched call. Other calls include a rapid rattling "lotok, lotok ..." and a harsh scolding "skeeaaaw" and a hissing threat call.

BREEDING

The breeding season is after the monsoon in southern India but varies in other parts of its range but chiefly June to September. Greater Coucals are monogamous, and the courtship display involves chases on the ground and the male brings food gifts for the female. The female lowers her tail and droops her wings to signal acceptance. The nest is built mostly by the male over about three to eight days.The nest is a deep cup with a dome in dense vegetation inside tangles of creepers, bamboo clump or Pandanus crowns. They can be built as high as 6m above the ground and the typical clutch is 3-5 eggs. The eggs (of size 36–28 mm weighing 14.8 g ) are chalky white with a yellow glaze when laid that wears off. Both the male and the female take part in nest building. They lay 2 to 4 eggs that hatch after 15–16 days of incubation. The chicks take 18–22 days to fledge. A study in southern India found that 77% of the eggs hatched and 67% fledged. Nests with eggs were sometimes abandoned or marauded by the Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos. he bird is associated with many superstitions and beliefs. The deep calls are associated with spirits and omens.

In British India, it was noted that new-recruits to India often mistook it for a pheasant and shot it to find it "evil flavoured" giving it the nickname of "Griff's pheasant".

The flesh was once eaten as a folk cure for tuberculosis and pulmonary ailments.

Haemosporidia closely related to those that cause malaria have been found in their red blood cells. One species, Haemoproteus centropi, is described from Cuckoos such as Clamator jacobinus and Centropus sinensis and is spread by mosquitoes. Immature Haemaphysalis ticks have been found feeding on Greater Coucals

7)   HOOPOE( UPPOPAN)

  Despite its attractive and distinctive plumage, the hoopoe is superbly camouflaged for its ground-feeding behavior in its preferred dry habitats. This bird is so outstandingly unique that it was revered in ancient Egypt, is a symbol of virtue in Persia and is the national bird of Israel. Scientific Name:

Upupa epops

Scientific Family:

Upupidae

Appearance:

Bill: Long, dark, thin, decurved

Size: 10-12 inches long with 17-18-inch wingspan, prominent crest, long tail

Colors: Pink-buff, orange-buff, tan, black, white

Markings: Genders are similar with the head, breast and back ranging from pink-buff to orange-buff to tan. The head features a long, black-spotted crest. The broad, rounded wings have bold black and white stripes, and the black tail has a thick white horizontal band at the midpoint. The lower abdomen, rump and undertail coverts are white. Legs and feet are dark, and the eyes are black. Juvenile birds have duller plumage overall, and the bars in the wings are more off-white than pure white.

Foods:

Insects primarily; also reptiles, small mammals, seeds, carrion (See: Insectivorous)

Habitat and Migration:

These unique birds prefer relatively dry habitats and can be found in orchards, vineyards, olive groves, open woodland, parks, gardens and suburban areas. They are relatively common around human habitation, and can be found year-round along the northern coast of Africa, in the Arabian peninsula, throughout sub-Saharan Africa and from India east to the coast of China. The summer breeding range extends further north to include Europe from Spain and Portugal north to the southern tip of Sweden and east to Korea and southern Japan. In winter, birds at higher latitudes migrate into the year-round range and Indonesia.

During migration, hoopoes can be occasionally seen in southern England, and vagrant birds are recorded in the United Kingdom fairly regularly. Very rare vagrant sightings may occur in Alaska.

Vocalizations:

These birds have a low, resonating “pooo-pooo-pooo” or “ooop-ooop-ooop” call which earned them their name. The calls are typically made with 2-3 syllables and may be repeated at regular intervals. Male birds use the call to defend their territory, and during the breeding season, hisses and squeaks are also common, though at other times of year hoopoes are fairly quiet.

Behavior:

Hoopoes are ground-foraging birds similar to flickers in North America. They will probe the ground looking for insects, and their heads have extra musculature to allow their bills to open underground. They are usually found in pairs or small groups, and the prominent head crest is most often closed except in alarm or when landing. These birds regularly sunbathe and will take dust baths as well. During the breeding season, males are especially territorial and will chase other males away, even stabbing at intruders with their long bills.

Reproduction:

Hoopoes are monogamous birds. As cavity-nesters, they choose nesting sites low to the ground, often in a hole in a wall or occasionally in low nest boxes. The nest may be unlined or sparsely lined with bits of leaves, grass or feathers. A typical brood can have from 3-12 round, pale, milky blue eggs, and 1-3 broods may be laid per mated pair each season.

The female parent incubates the eggs for 15-16 days, and the male may feed her during the incubation period. After hatching, the altricial chicks are covered with a fine down and are fed by both parents for 25-29 days until they leave the nest. After fledging, they stay near their parents for up to another week.

Attracting Hoopoes:

These unique birds will readily feed near humans in areas with short grass or bare ground that provide easy foraging. Leaving low, decaying walls intact can encourage birds to nest, and they will occasionally use nest boxes or bird houses that are mounted low to the ground.

Conservation:

These birds are not endangered or threatened, though illegal hunting can be a problem in some areas. Habitat destruction is the biggest threat for hoopoes, but they are adaptable and can thrive near humans, making it easier for them to relocate if favored habitats become untenable.

8)      BLUE WINGED PARAKEET(NEELATHATTA)

The Blue-winged Parakeet, also known as the Malabar Parakeet (Psittacula columboides) is a species of parakeet endemic to the Western Ghats of southern India. Found in small flocks, they fly rapidly in forest clearings while making screeching calls that differ from those of other parakeet species within their distribution range. Their long blue tails tipped in yellow and the dark wings with blue contrast with the dull grey of their head and body. Adult males and females can be easily told apart from the colour of their beak. The Blue-winged Parakeet is bluish grey with a long yellow-tipped tail. The black neck ring is complete in both males and females. The male has a bluish-green lower edge to the black collar and the upper mandible is red with a white tip while the female has an all black bill and has only the black collar. The female looks similar to the female of the Plum-headed Parakeet which however can be told apart by its broad yellow collar. Flocks move through the forest while calling out in a series of screeching keek-keek-keek calls.

They breed in the dry season after the northeast Monsoon and the chicks fledge before the southwest Monsoon in June. They nest in holes in trees (often tall Mesua ferrea species), especially old woodpecker and barbet nests. The birds begin breeding in December and eggs are laid in December and January. The usual clutch was 4 eggs which hatch after about 23 days. The female initially broods with the male bringing food and later the male takes over. The chicks fledge in about a month and leave the nest. Chicks are sometimes trapped for trade. Individuals have been observed feeding on the leaves of Loranthus longiflorus.

The closest relative of this species is Layard's Parakeet which is endemic to Sri Lanka. his parakeet is restricted to the Western Ghats south of about 19°N (Kasa, north of Bombay) to Kerala, extending into the hills of the Palnis and Nilgiris[5] as well as the adjoining Eastern Ghats including the Biligirirangan range and possibly further east in the Kolli Hills

9)   SPOTTED OWLET (PULLINATH)

1The Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) is a small owl which breeds in tropical Asia from India to Southeast Asia. A common resident of open habitats including farmland and human habitation, it has adapted to living in cities. They roost in small groups in the hollows of trees or in cavities in rocks or buildings. It nests in a hole in a tree or building, laying 3–5 eggs. The species is absent from Sri Lanka, although the birds are found across the Palk Straits, just 30 kilometres away at Rameshwaram. Nests near human habitations may show higher breeding success due to increased availability of rodents for feeding young. The species shows a lot of variation including clinal variation in size and forms a superspecies with the very similar Little Owl. The Spotted Owlet is small (21 cm) and stocky. The upperparts are grey-brown, heavily spotted with white. The underparts are white, streaked with brown. The facial disc is pale and the iris is yellow. There is a white neckband and supercilium. Sexes are similar. The flight is deeply undulating. The nominate form is darker than the paler forms such as indica of drier regions.

his species is nocturnal but is sometimes seen in the day. When disturbed from their daytime site, they bob their head and stare at intruders.[10] It can often be located by the small birds that mob it while it is perched in a tree. It hunts a variety of insects and small vertebrates. In Pakistan they have been found to take mostly insect prey] In the arid region of Jodhpur, they have been found to take more rodents (especially in the genus Mus and tend to avoid other rodents such as Tatera) prior to the breeding season.[15] Bats, toads, small snakes such as Ramphotyphlops braminus have been noted. They may also take scorpions and molluscs.

The call is a harsh and loud churring and chuckling chirurr-chirurr-chirurr ending with a chirwak-chirwak and they call mainly during early dawn or just after sunset.

The breeding season is November to April.[3] Courtship behaviour includes bill grasping, allopreening and ritual feeding. The female may call with the male, bob head and deflect its tail in invitation.[20] The social organization of family groups is not clear and multiple males may copulate with a female and females may attempt pseudocopulation, possibly a kind of displacement behaviour. They nest in cavities often competing with other hole-nesters such as mynas. They may also nest in holes in vertical embankments The nest may be lined with leaves and feathers or may use the existing lining from a prior occupant. The typical clutch is made up of three or four spherical white eggs (30.9mm long and 26.3 mm wide, 11.6g) and incubation begins with the first laid eggs leading to a wide variation in the size of the chicks. The young are fed initially on insects such as cockroaches and later fed small vertebrate prey such as mice(a toad Bufo stomaticus has been noted in Gujarat). The chicks gain weight during the early stages but lose weight before fledging. Only one or two chicks may fledge and they leave the nest in about 20–28 days.

The brain has a pineal gland, a feature formerly thought to be absent in the owls. Birds show variation in the melatonin concentration between day and night. A high melatonin level is associated with sleep and low levels are associated with high alertness and foraging activity. Spotted Owlets however show only a slightly lower melatonin concentration at night with a slight increase in the early afternoon. Other owls such as the Barn Owl show little day-night variation. Seasonal changes in glandular activity have been associated with environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

A Coccidian parasites, Eimeria atheni has been described from this species. An ectoparasitic mite, Neocheletiella athene has been described from a specimen from the Antwerp zoo.Bird lice of the species Colpocephalum pectinatum are known to be ectoparasites.

In culture

These birds being very familiar to humans especially with their loud calling have been associated with bad omens.The species name brama is from the French name Chouette brame and indirectly refers to this owl's Indian habitat by way of homage to Brahma, the Hindu supreme spirit. In Hindu mythol

10) The Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) is a small owl which breeds in tropical Asia from India to Southeast Asia. A common resident of open habitats including farmland and human habitation, it has adapted to living in cities. They roost in small groups in the hollows of trees or in cavities in rocks or buildings. It nests in a hole in a tree or building, laying 3–5 eggs. The species is absent from Sri Lanka, although the birds are found across the Palk Straits, just 30 kilometres away at Rameshwaram. Nests near human habitations may show higher breeding success due to increased availability of rodents for feeding young. The species shows a lot of variation including clinal variation in size and forms a superspecies with the very similar Little Owl. The Spotted Owlet is small (21 cm) and stocky. The upperparts are grey-brown, heavily spotted with white. The underparts are white, streaked with brown. The facial disc is pale and the iris is yellow. There is a white neckband and supercilium. Sexes are similar. The flight is deeply undulating. The nominate form is darker than the paler forms such as indica of drier regions.

his species is nocturnal but is sometimes seen in the day. When disturbed from their daytime site, they bob their head and stare at intruders.[10] It can often be located by the small birds that mob it while it is perched in a tree. It hunts a variety of insects and small vertebrates. In Pakistan they have been found to take mostly insect prey] In the arid region of Jodhpur, they have been found to take more rodents (especially in the genus Mus and tend to avoid other rodents such as Tatera) prior to the breeding season.[15] Bats, toads, small snakes such as Ramphotyphlops braminus have been noted. They may also take scorpions and molluscs.

The call is a harsh and loud churring and chuckling chirurr-chirurr-chirurr ending with a chirwak-chirwak and they call mainly during early dawn or just after sunset.

The breeding season is November to April.[3] Courtship behaviour includes bill grasping, allopreening and ritual feeding. The female may call with the male, bob head and deflect its tail in invitation.[20] The social organization of family groups is not clear and multiple males may copulate with a female and females may attempt pseudocopulation, possibly a kind of displacement behaviour. They nest in cavities often competing with other hole-nesters such as mynas. They may also nest in holes in vertical embankments The nest may be lined with leaves and feathers or may use the existing lining from a prior occupant. The typical clutch is made up of three or four spherical white eggs (30.9mm long and 26.3 mm wide, 11.6g) and incubation begins with the first laid eggs leading to a wide variation in the size of the chicks. The young are fed initially on insects such as cockroaches and later fed small vertebrate prey such as mice(a toad Bufo stomaticus has been noted in Gujarat). The chicks gain weight during the early stages but lose weight before fledging. Only one or two chicks may fledge and they leave the nest in about 20–28 days.

The brain has a pineal gland, a feature formerly thought to be absent in the owls. Birds show variation in the melatonin concentration between day and night. A high melatonin level is associated with sleep and low levels are associated with high alertness and foraging activity. Spotted Owlets however show only a slightly lower melatonin concentration at night with a slight increase in the early afternoon. Other owls such as the Barn Owl show little day-night variation. Seasonal changes in glandular activity have been associated with environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

A Coccidian parasites, Eimeria atheni has been described from this species. An ectoparasitic mite, Neocheletiella athene has been described from a specimen from the Antwerp zoo.Bird lice of the species Colpocephalum pectinatum are known to be ectoparasites.

In culture

These birds being very familiar to humans especially with their loud calling have been associated with bad omens.The species name brama is from the French name Chouette brame and indirectly refers to this owl's Indian habitat by way of homage to Brahma, the Hindu supreme spirit. In Hindu mythol

10) The Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) is a small owl which breeds in tropical Asia from India to Southeast Asia. A common resident of open habitats including farmland and human habitation, it has adapted to living in cities. They roost in small groups in the hollows of trees or in cavities in rocks or buildings. It nests in a hole in a tree or building, laying 3–5 eggs. The species is absent from Sri Lanka, although the birds are found across the Palk Straits, just 30 kilometres away at Rameshwaram. Nests near human habitations may show higher breeding success due to increased availability of rodents for feeding young. The species shows a lot of variation including clinal variation in size and forms a superspecies with the very similar Little Owl. The Spotted Owlet is small (21 cm) and stocky. The upperparts are grey-brown, heavily spotted with white. The underparts are white, streaked with brown. The facial disc is pale and the iris is yellow. There is a white neckband and supercilium. Sexes are similar. The flight is deeply undulating. The nominate form is darker than the paler forms such as indica of drier regions.

his species is nocturnal but is sometimes seen in the day. When disturbed from their daytime site, they bob their head and stare at intruders.[10] It can often be located by the small birds that mob it while it is perched in a tree. It hunts a variety of insects and small vertebrates. In Pakistan they have been found to take mostly insect prey] In the arid region of Jodhpur, they have been found to take more rodents (especially in the genus Mus and tend to avoid other rodents such as Tatera) prior to the breeding season.[15] Bats, toads, small snakes such as Ramphotyphlops braminus have been noted. They may also take scorpions and molluscs.

The call is a harsh and loud churring and chuckling chirurr-chirurr-chirurr ending with a chirwak-chirwak and they call mainly during early dawn or just after sunset.

The breeding season is November to April.[3] Courtship behaviour includes bill grasping, allopreening and ritual feeding. The female may call with the male, bob head and deflect its tail in invitation.[20] The social organization of family groups is not clear and multiple males may copulate with a female and females may attempt pseudocopulation, possibly a kind of displacement behaviour. They nest in cavities often competing with other hole-nesters such as mynas. They may also nest in holes in vertical embankments The nest may be lined with leaves and feathers or may use the existing lining from a prior occupant. The typical clutch is made up of three or four spherical white eggs (30.9mm long and 26.3 mm wide, 11.6g) and incubation begins with the first laid eggs leading to a wide variation in the size of the chicks. The young are fed initially on insects such as cockroaches and later fed small vertebrate prey such as mice(a toad Bufo stomaticus has been noted in Gujarat). The chicks gain weight during the early stages but lose weight before fledging. Only one or two chicks may fledge and they leave the nest in about 20–28 days.

The brain has a pineal gland, a feature formerly thought to be absent in the owls. Birds show variation in the melatonin concentration between day and night. A high melatonin level is associated with sleep and low levels are associated with high alertness and foraging activity. Spotted Owlets however show only a slightly lower melatonin concentration at night with a slight increase in the early afternoon. Other owls such as the Barn Owl show little day-night variation. Seasonal changes in glandular activity have been associated with environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

A Coccidian parasites, Eimeria atheni has been described from this species. An ectoparasitic mite, Neocheletiella athene has been described from a specimen from the Antwerp zoo.Bird lice of the species Colpocephalum pectinatum are known to be ectoparasites.

In culture

These birds being very familiar to humans especially with their loud calling have been associated with bad omens.The species name brama is from the French name Chouette brame and indirectly refers to this owl's Indian habitat by way of homage to Brahma, the Hindu supreme spirit. In Hindu mythol

10) INDIAN CUCKOO( VISHUPAKSHI)

 

The Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes, that is found in Asia from Pakistan and India, Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and north

This is a medium sized cuckoo with both sexes alike. It has grey upperparts while the underside has broad black barring. The tail is barred with a broad subterminal dark band and a white tip. Young birds have white markings on the crown and white chin and throat contrasting with a dark face. Juveniles are browner and have broad white tips to the head and wing feathers. The eye-ring is gray to yellow (a feature shared with the Common Hawk-Cuckoo). The iris is light brown to reddish. The female differs from the male in being slightly paler grey on the throat and in having more brown on the breast and tail. The barring on the belly is narrower than in the male. Nestlings have an orange-red mouth and yellow flanges to the gape.

Indian Cuckoo call

They feed on hairy caterpillars and other insects but sometimes take fruits. They usually feed on the upper canopy, gleaning insects, sometimes making aerial sallies for flying termites or rarely even by hovering lower near the grounto China and Russia. It is a solitary and shy bird, found in forests and open woodland at up to 3,600 m. In Kerala (India), it is called "Vishu Pakshi" (the Vishu bird) as it appears with its distinctive call around the Vishu festival time in April. The species is found widely distributed across Asia. The preferred habitat is deciduous and evergreen forests but also occur in garden lands and thick scrub.

Some populations appear to migrate south in winter, although there are breeding populations in the southern areas as well with specimens netted at night or recorded at lighthouses.

Behaviour and ecology

The Indian Cuckoo is a brood parasite. It lays its single egg mostly in the nests of drongos and crows. It removes and eats an egg from the host nest before laying its own. The breeding season varies from May to July in northern China, March to August in India, January to June in Burma and January to August in the Malay Peninsula.

The host species include Lanius cristatus in the Amur region, Black Drongo and Pica cyanea in China. In India, they have been found to be fed by Black Drongos and Ashy Drongo. Other hosts that have been recorded include Black-headed Oriole,[8] Streaked Spiderhunter, Eurylaimus ochromalus and Dicrurus paradiseus.

The eggs of the cuckoo hatch in 12 days while those of the Brown Shrike in the Amur region take 14 days. During the third of fourth day, the young bird bends its back when touched and heaves out other eggs or nestlings. This instinct is lost soon after.